Coinage and History:

　　From the Greco-Bactrian

　　Kings to the Kushan

　　The coins of the Greco-Bactrian kings are among the most magnificent of the Hellenistic era. The powerful, expressive portraits of the rules represent the climax of Greek portrait art and impressively document the sovereign self-perception of Alexanderˇs heirs in Central Asia and Northwest India.

　　When Diodotos, the Seleucid satrap of Bactria, declared independence from his overlord Antiochus II (261-246) (Pl. I-1) after 250 BCE and founded an independent kingdom in Bactria (todayˇs Northern Afghanistan), the first thing he did was to put his own portrait on the coins. On the reverse, he replaced the Greek god Apollo, the mythical patron deity of the Seleucid dynasty, with the highest-ranking Greek god, Zeus brandishing a thunderbolt who from then on was to serve as patron deity of the new kingdom. However, the first of these coins minted in gold and silver [1] still carried the name of Antiochus ¨[Coin] of the King of Antiochus〃); only after Diodotus was confident of his success and considered the revolt secure did he also exchange the name of the Antiochus for his own  ¨[Coin] of the King Diodotus〃) (Pl. I-2). According to written records, Diodotus was succeeded by his son of the same name whose coins did not differ at all from those of his father as regards the portrait or the inscriptions. From the ¨pedigree coins〃 of the later King Agathocles,[2] we know that there were actually two kings with this name: Agathocles claimed his lineage went back to Pantaleon, Demetrius I, Euthydemus I, and Antiochus II, as well as Alexander the Great, and also minted coins for Diodotus Soter and Diodotus Theos.

　　Diodotus II was overthrown around 230 BCE by Euthydemus, a Greek from Ionic

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　　Magnesia in Asia Minor. Under his rule and that of his son Demetrius, the Bactrian empire was consolidated and underwent an expansion beyond Hindu Kush to Paropamisadae, Arachosia (Southern Afghanistan), and Gandhara where the downfall of the formerly powerful Indian Mauryan Empire had left a vacuum into which the Greek kings thrust forward. The portrait of Euthydemus on the obverse of his coins conveys an image of unbridled lust for action and brutal determination, and the reverse shows Heracles, the invincible hero of the Greeks whom even Alexander chose as patron (Pl. I-3). This new coin type of Euthydemus became very widespread-also outside of the Greco-Bactrian empire-and even served as a model for the local Sogdian coinage in Bukhara at the end of 3rd century.

　　Euthydemusˇ son, Demetrius I (c. 200-185), was the first to cross the Hindu Kush-called Paropamisus by the Greeks, but also sometimes incorrectly referred to as Caucasus-and to come into closer contact with Indian culture. The incursion into India by Demetrius is assumed to mark the beginning of a new era in Gandhara with the start of a new time reckoning as of the year 186/185 BCE and is referred to as the Greek era (yavana).[3] The similarity in the portrait of Demetrius with his father is obvious, but he is wearing -like Alexander as conqueror of India-the elephant scalp (Pl. I-4). The reverse of his silver coin shows a youthful, beardless self-crowning Heracles wielding a club and a lion skin in his left hand. This type of image is a special characteristic of Bactrian coin typology and was also used by Euthydemus II and King Lysias (c. 120-110). A bronze statuette of a self-crowning Heracles was also found in the niche temple of Ai Khanum, one of the most important metropolitan centers in Northeast Bactria.[4]

　　With the conquest of Bactria by Alexander, Greek beliefs and notions also came to Central Asia. Apart from the Greek language, religion was also an important factor of identity for the ruling upper class of Greek descent. The iconography of the Greek gods they brought with them from home became widespread not least due to the rapid circulation of the coins and was soon integrated into the imagery of the local cults by the domestic population. Images of Greek gods and their attributes were used for representing non-Greek gods, which meant that it was quite possible to find completely different beliefs hidden behind images of originally purely Greek gods. A good example is Heracles whose cult is not only closely related to Alexander the Great, but also with Iranian Zoroastrism in the god of victory Verethragna, and in Buddhism as Vajrapani as well as in Hinduism as Shiva or Krishna.

　　Agathocles (c. 185-170) and Pantaleon (c. 185-180)- who expanded the empire of the Greek kings in India beyond the Indus River to at least Taxila-minted bilingual coins for

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　　Coinage and History: From the Greco-Bactrian Kings to the Kushan

　　the first time: On the one side, the coins are inscribed in Greek, and on the other, the Greek legend was translated into Indian Prakrit using Brahmi script. Agathocles seems to have been very attracted to the new culture and religion in India. For his new bilingual silver drachms, which were probably minted in Taxila, he did not select any Greek gods, but rather had two Indian gods, Samkarshana and Vasudeva-Krishna, represented.[5] However, his successors immediately returned to traditional Greek religious policy. Nonetheless, they stuck to the bilingualism of the coins intended for the Indian region and only substituted the Brahmi script by the Kharoshthi script.

　　As regards currency policy, the domain of the Greek kings was divided in two: North of the Hindu Kush, in Bactria, only coins with Greek inscriptions based on the Attic weight standard were issued (drachm with c. 4.20 g; tetradrachm with c. 16.80 g), while in Gandhara, the coins issued were mainly bilingual and based on the lighter Indian weight standard (drachm with c. 2.45 g; tetradrachm with c. 9.80 g). In Paropamisadae, Arachosia, and in Western Gandhara, at the intersection with Bactria, the Attic weight standard was sometimes used as well.

　　The common metals used for currency were gold, silver and copper (seldom also nickel and lead). Characteristic for the Indian currency region is also the square flan used for drachm and copper denominations modeled after the traditional Indian ¨punch-marked coins〃 of the Mauryas, which predominated in Indian currency over centuries and also circulated among the Greek kings. In 1970, a hoard of 677 such ¨punch-marked coins〃 was found together with six of the aforementioned bilingual drachm of Agathocles from Taxila in Ai Khanum.[6] The coins must have been saved within a relatively short time from the currency in circulation in Taxila and transferred across the Hindu Kush to Bactria; they document the intense trade relations between Gandhara and Bactria during this time. The treasure probably closes soon after the death of Agathocles and was left behind in the final destruction of Ai Khanum by the Yuezhi (see below) around 129/28 BCE. A completely different picture is painted by the treasure found in 1973 in Ai Khanum that closes under Eucratides I (c. 171-145, see below) and consists exclusively of Greek inscribed tetradrachms based on the Attic weight standard. 22% of the coins saved were Alexander tetradrachms or came from the kingdom of the Seleucids and show that the relations of Bactria to the Seleucid homeland were never fully broken off.[7]

　　Around 171 BCE, when the Parthian king Mithradates I (171-139/38) came to the throne in Iran, in Bactria, Eucratides (c. 171-145) rose against the rule of the Euthydemid. His origin is unclear, but in any case he found it necessary to commemorate his parents -

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　　Heliocles und Laodice - in a coin image, with only the mother apparently being of royal lineage, because she is the only one wearing a diadem.[8] As a sign of his royal bearing, on the obverse of his coins Eucratides is wearing a Macedonian helmet with bullsˇ horns and ears - the bull as symbol of kingly power had already played a special role in the dynastic iconography of Seleucus I; depicted on the reverse are the Dioscuri Castor and Pollux on horseback, surrounded by the Greek legend  ¨[Coin] of the Great King Eucratides¨). An outstanding specialty that documents the unheard of power wielded by Eucratides is the 20 drachm gold stater which was allegedly found in Bukhara and is in the Cabinet des Medailles in Paris- it is the largest gold coin ever minted in the Hellenistic world (Pl. I-5).

　　Eucratides also succeeded in gaining a foothold south of the Hindu Kush and to push back the governing King Menander (c. 165/155-130) in Eastern Punjab. Menander, depicted in written records as the King of India is also mentioned in Buddhist literature as a supporter of Buddhism and exemplary ruler. He declared Athena his patron deity that is depicted on his coins (Pl. I-6) in a warrior-like pose with lightning bolts, shield and aegis (a miraculous animal-skin-like weapon decorated with golden pompoms originally created for Zeus by Hephaestus). The image of Athena Promachos is deeply rooted in Hellenistic coin iconography and announces the particular issuer as defender of Greek culture.

　　The murder of Eucratides abruptly stopped the conquest of India. This happened in connection with a fundamental event that led to the complete collapse of Greek dominion in Bactria: Around 145 BCE, Scythian mounted nomads from Central Asia attacked Eastern Bactria (Tokharistan) referred to in Chinese annals as Sai or Saiwang, and in Western sources as Sakai, Sakaraukai or Scythai (the later so-called Indo-Scythians), thus ending the reign of the Greek kings. In the course of this overwhelming attack by the nomads, Ai Khanum was also plundered and given up by the Greek population that fled to Western Bactria. The conquerors immediately started smelting the gold and silver into bars on site that they found in the treasuries of Ai Khanums.[9] Potsherds with inscriptions found in the royal treasury of the palace show us that the kings had stored their silver coins in sealed clay jars that now fell into the hands of the Scythian warriors.[10]

　　The Sai / Sakai did not last long in Eastern Bactria, but were displaced around 129/28 BCE by the following Yuezhi (later Kushan) from Tokharistan. They retreated to the West and conquered Western Bactria with the capital Bactra (Balkh) of the last reigning Greek King Heliocles I (c. 145 to after 130 BCE) (Pl. I-7) thus ending an almost two-hundred-year Greek reign in Central Asia. The Greek kings lost Bactria in two phases: to the Sai/Sakai

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　　Coinage and History: From the Greco-Bactrian Kings to the Kushan

　　who were then displaced by the Yuezhi. The final conquest of Bactria by the Yuezhi followed around the end of the twenties of the 2nd century BCE.[11]

　　It is unclear how the Sakai / Scythai moved to Arachosia (southern Afghanistan) and Gandhara, but in any case, Maues, the first of the so-called Indo-Scythian Kings started to mint coins around 90/85 BCE in Taxila (Pl. I-8). Maues is the immediate successor of the Greek king Archebius. Soon afterwards, Vonones gained power in Arachosia and he had a Parthian name as well as holding the title of ¨King of Kings〃 ( ¨[Coin of] the Great King of Kings Vonones〃). He ruled jointly with his ¨royal brother〃 Spalahora and his brotherˇs son Spaladagama.[12] After Maues, the Greek kings Apollodotus II and Hippostratus attempted to regain power in Taxila, but they failed to conquer Azes I who ruled undisputed as of 57 BCE from Arachosia in the west to the Indus in the east (Pl. I-9).

　　The Indo-Scythian kings followed a clear concept in denominations and typology which was based on the traditions of the Greek kings they encountered there: Tetradrachm and drachm were minted in silver in series according to the Indian weight standard. Additionally, the minted copper coins with varying values were struck mostly in square forms. In the case of silver coins, an increasing debasement of the precious metal content took place at the start of the 1st century CE. On the obverse, the image of the king on horseback was to become the brand of the Indo-Scythian coinage and highlights the nomadic origins of the mounted warriors. On the reverse, images of gods and animals predominate. The gods are partly from the Greek, partly from the Indian pantheon and increasingly show syncretic features. Thus, one coin series of Azilises, a contemporary or successor of Azes I, features the Indian fertility goddess Lakshmi between two elephants on lotus petals, while another series of the same king depicts the Greek Dioscuri, which we have already seen in the coin series of Eucratides I (Pl. I-10). One should note in this context that the twins were also known in the religious thinking of the Indo-Iranian culture and perceived in the function of companions or guardians of a superior goddess in the murals of the temple of Dilberjin (South Bactria, 40 km from Balkh), which is dated to the 2nd (or 3rd) century CE.[13]

　　At the beginning of the 1st century CE, the Indo-Scythian kingdom was in a severe crisis. The Indo-Parthian king Gondophares (c. 20-after 46) enters the scene and successively conquers the regions ruled by the Indo-Scythians. The relations of the Indo-Parthians to the Parthian/Arsacid dynasty that ruled in Iran are unclear. Their homeland seems to have been the Eastern Iranian province of Sistan where they minted drachms according to the Parthian model. From their base in Sistan they pushed eastwards and conquered Arachosia

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　　and Gandhara which had been held by the Indo-Scythians. Sagala (Sialkot) in Eastern Panjab and Sind on the lower course of the Indus River were then added. In the coinage of the Indo-Parthian kings these regions are clearly recognizable as separate currency zones, not leaving any doubt about the extension of the empire. A separate denomination was issued for each of the provinces mentioned with their own images designed to conform to local traditions and needs. Thus, for example, in Arachosia only bilingual copper tetradrachms were minted; these bear the bust of the king on the obverse wearing a diadem and a large-chain necklace, while the reverse presents the Greek goddess of victory Nike (Pl. I-11).

　　A very similar golden necklace like the one worn by Gondophares on his coins, was found in tomb IV of Tillya Tepe in North Afghanistan,[14] while the image of Nike implies a relationship to the imperial Parthian coinage minted by Vonones I (8/9-11/12). Also demonstrating Parthian influence is the image of the mounted king crowned by Nike as often found in Gandhara on the tetradrachms of Gondophares (Pl. I-12).

　　The Indo-Parthians failed to stay in power for long. Their opponents were the Kushan that came from the Yuezhi. As already mentioned, the Yuezhi had conquered Sogdia and all of Bactria around 129/28 BCE and, confronted with the economic usages of the sedentary world, also started minting their own coins. In the beginning, there were several imitation groups oriented primarily on the models of the coin types of the two last Greek kings, Eucratides I and Heliocles I (Pl. I-13). The famous hoard of Qunduz (Khisht Tepe, 90 km from Qunduz on the southern shores of Amu Darya in northern Afghanistan), which dates to the time of the reign of the Yuezhi / Kushan in Bactria and includes 627 silver coins of Seleucid, Bactrian and Indo-Greek kings based on the Attic weight standard, already contained many of these imitations.[15]

　　Around 70 BCE, the Yuezhi / Kushan had already crossed the Hindu Kush and settled in Paropamisadae with the capital Alexandria ad Caucasum (Begram) where they succeeded the last reigning Indo-Greek King Hermaeus (c. 90-70) and started copying his coin types.[16]

　　The first Kushan prince who explicitly declared himself as such on his coins and placed his own portrait on it was ¨Heraios〃. He minted tetradrachms and obols (one-six drachm) in Bactria according to the Attic weight standard (Pl. I-14). The most expressive portrait stands clearly in the tradition of the coin images of the Greco-Bactrian kings and has similarities with the impressive images of sovereigns in the early Kushan temple of Khalchayan.[17] It depicts a nomad prince with long hair and moustache, wearing the Hellenistic diadem; on the reverse he is - like on the coin types of Gondophares (cf. Pl. I-12) - on horseback being crowned by a Nike. The Greek legend states the title of a ¨ruler〃 and the ethnikon ¨Kushan〃.

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　　Coinage and History: From the Greco-Bactrian Kings to the Kushan

　　The coin images of ¨Heraios〃 are in any case a first major step towards the formation of a new identity which stands in the field of tension between the Kushan nomadic heritage and the local culture influenced by the Greek and Iranians. What is unclear is if the first Kushan king known by name, Kujula Kadphises, is already behind these first issues.[18]

　　Kujula Kadphises, whose name we know from numerous coins, but also from the famous Rabatak inscription [19] as the great grandfather of the Great Kanishka, is the first clearly identifiable Kushan king and founder of the Kushan rule in India. He attempted to throw out the Indo-Parthian kings from Gandhara in many battles lost and won. His coins with their complexities document the campaign of the Kushan to cross the Hindu Kush into Paropamisadae and reach Gandhara and Sind (Pl. I-15, 16). The chronological framework for this coinage covers the time from c. 30/40 to 80/90 CE. As regards typology and denomination, the coins minted by Kujula Kadphises south of the Hindu Kush still fully follow the tradition of the Indo-Parthian coinage that were struck only in copper. Remarkable is a minted copper drachm coin series which shows on the obverse the bust of an emperor with a laurel wreath modeled after the Roman aurei and denarii of the Julian-Claudian dynasty, while the reverse shows Kujula sitting on a ¨curule chair〃 as the throne (Pl. I-16). This is the first time that the Roman influence is clearly seen in Kushan coinage reflecting the fact that the Kushan were confronted with the enormous flows of Roman coins that came through the trade routes to India. In this context, I would like to point out the tombs of Tillya Tepe again where an aureus of the Roman emperor Tiberius (14-37) was found in tomb III.[20]

　　The successor of Kujula Kadphises was his son Vima Takto whose name we encountered for the first time in the Rabatak inscription. Subsequently, it was possible to identify Vima Taktoˇs name on a few copper coins that immediately followed the coins minted by his father.[21] The coin series of Vima Takto are followed by those of the ¨Nameless King〃 that bear only the title  (¨the great savior〃) on his copper coins (Pl. I-17) These were minted in enormous amounts with a standardized concept for the images and denominations and represent the first step towards a uniform currency for the Empire. It is unclear if Vima Takto and Soter Megas is one and the same king or if these are two different rulers.[22]

　　Soter Megas is succeeded by Vima Kadphises, the father of the Great Kanishka. It is in his rule that the Kushan gold minting starts. The conquest of India suddenly gave the Kushan possession of enormous flows of Roman gold imports, which had been flowing from Rome to India since early imperial times, to finance the costly trade with the Orient. This is the foundation on which the Kushan under Vima Kadphises created their own coinage system which in several elements is based on the Roman model. The principal denomination was

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　　the gold dinar (c. 8 g) guided by the example of the Roman aureus that was struck in various denominations, while copper coins served for smaller payments. Vima Kadphises is depicted in various poses on his gold coins: either in the form of a bust or sitting cross legged over a mountain (Pl. I-18), riding an elephant, or driving a triumphal chariot.[23] He wears a high tiara, the Hellenistic diadem and sometimes also the chlamys or Roman paludamentum (cloak of a general). Flames are rising from his shoulders, symbolizing royal fortune in the Iranian custom. On his copper coins, he is always depicted standing next to a small altar bringing an offering, wearing a caftan, long pants, and heavy boots (Pl. I-19). The reverse is dedicated solely to the Kushan god O.sho that appears in the form of the Hindu god Shiva, but also has features of Zeus, Poseidon, and Heracles.[24] The inscription is guided by the Indo-Greek model: it is written in correct Greek on the obverse, while the reverse shows the title and name in Kharoshthi script.

　　The pinnacle of Kushan power was reached under the son of Vima Kadphises, Kanishka I, and his son Huvishka. The Kushan Empire reached from Bactria across the Hindu Kush deep into Central India. In this context, a reference must be made again to the Rabatak inscription in which Kanishka explicitly states that he has subjugated the entirety of India including the cities of Kausambi (Kosam, near Allahabad), Pataliputra (Patna in Magadha) and Sri Campa (near Bhagalpur). He also states that he started a new era that begins counting with year one. The start of this era introduced by Kanishka, and thus his first year of rule, is believed to be the year 127/128 CE by most academics today,[25] even though it cannot be ruled out that it commenced around 100 years later.

　　Under Kanishka I and Huvishka, the reverse of the coins depicts a wide variety of deities that originate mostly from Iranian beliefs but also use many iconographic elements from the Greek and Indian gods in the images (Pl. I-20~25). As Kanishka states in the introduction to the Rabatak inscription, he was given his rule from the goddess Nana and all other gods. Therefore, the numerous gods depicted on the coins must be viewed primarily as investiture gods to whom Kanishka owes his kingdom. These images often show the goddess Nana named in the Rabatak inscription, also called ¨Royal Nana〃 (Nanashao) in some cases. The Kushan also adopted the custom from the Romans to write the name of the gods depicted on the coins. In the beginning, Kanishka used Greek (Pl. I-20), but then introduced Bactrian - an Eastern Iranian dialect written in Greek letters that he refers to in the Rabatak inscription as ariao (¨Arian〃) - as the state language. Near the end of his reign Buddha also appears on Kanishkaˇs coins who is also praised as a great admirer of Buddha in Buddhist literature.[26] The gold coins show the historic Buddha standing with the simple Bactrian legend Boddo

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　　Coinage and History: From the Greco-Bactrian Kings to the Kushan

　　(Pl. I-22), on the copper coins the legend to this coin image is Sakamano Boudo; the future Buddha Maitreya (Metrago Boudo) is shown only on the copper coins sitting (Pl. I-23).

　　The decline of the Kushan Empire came under the rule of Vasudeva I, the successor of Huvishka. Weakened by internal fights and in the West by the Persian Sasanians and in the East by the Indian Guptas, the empire was divided up gradually under the new powers. Of the numerous gods, which under Kanishka I and Huvishka had held their protecting hand over the Kushan Empire, only O.sho (Pl. I-26) and Ardokhsho (Pl. I-27), the goddesses of royal fortune, remain.

　　The special influence of Rome on Kushan coinage - as already mentioned - became clear for the first time under Kujula Kadphises in the 1st century CE. In this context, a special jewel must be mentioned that emerged from the cultural tension between Rome and the Kushan Empire in India (Pl. I-28). It is a golden medallion in a setting that shows an image of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great (306-337) on the obverse. The prototype is a double solidus of Constantine that was minted in the years 325/326 in Nicomedia on the occasion of the twenty-year anniversary of the emperor. The legend is barbarized and the Latin model is no longer recognizable. The image on the reverse is a copy of the Roman goddess of victory, Victoria, but she is wearing an Indian dhoti. The legend is obviously copied from GLORIA ROMANORVM. This extraordinary piece of jewelry has an amazing parallel in a Roman-Kushan mixed medallion that is in the possession of the British Museum, and in this case as well, the obverse is a picture derived from a Roman gold multiplum of Constantine the Great from the mint of Nicomedia. The reverse shows the Iranian goddess Ardokhsho as depicted on dinars of the Kushan king Huvishka.[27]

　　Apart from the two pieces having the same content, the technology used for the setting indicates that the two medallions might have even come from the same workshop. Finally, a third similar piece is known.[28] In this case, it is an original gold dinar of Kanishka I (Oesho on the reverse) that was made into a pendant. The jewel setting is almost identical to that of the medallion in the British Museum, and therefore, in this case as well, a common workshop could very well be possible.

 

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NOTES:

[1] Bopearachchi 1991, ser. 1-4.

[2] Bopearachchi 1991, ser. 14-15.

[3] Salomon 2005; Falk 2008. Recently the beginning of the Yavana Era was shifted to 174/175 BCE, cf. Falk 2007 (2012), 135-136 with further literature.

[4] Afghanistan, p. 113, no. 14.

[5] Bopearachchi 1991, ser. 9.

[6] Audouin and Bernard 1973.

[7] Petitot-Biehler 1975.

[8] Bopearachchi 1991, ser. 13-16.

[9] Afghanistan, p. 107, nos. 5-8.

[10] Afghanistan, p.109, nos. 10-11.

[11] Dorn`eich 2008.

[12] Alram 1986, nos. 937-942; Senior 2001, nos. 65.1-75.1.

[13] Lo Muzio 1999.

[14] Afghanistan, p. 275, no. 116.

[15] Bopearachchi 1990.

[16] Bopearachchi 1991, ser. 10-20.

[17] Pugachenkova 1965.

[18] Cribb 1993.

[19] Found in 1993 in Northern Afghanistan, cf. Sims-Williams and Cribb 1996.

[20] Afghanistan, p. 261, no. 95.

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Coinage and History: From the Greco-Bactrian Kings to the Kushan

[21] Cribb 1999; Falk 2009.

[22] Bopearachchi 2008.

[23] Gobl 1984, nos. 1-24, 760-765; Bopearachchi 2008.

[24] Cribb 1997.

[25] Falk 2001; Falk 2004; Falk 2008.

[26] Cribb 2000.

[27] Crossroads, no. 146.

[28] Gobl 1999, pl. 4.